Key Concept 3 2 Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions Quizlet
"State formation in this era demonstrated remarkable continuity, innovation and diversity in various regions. In Afro-Eurasia, some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive imperial structures, while smaller, less centralized states continued to develop. The expansion of Islam introduced a new concept — the Caliphate — to Afro-Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated people and institutions from both the pastoral and agrarian worlds. In the Americas, powerful states developed in both Mesoamerica and the Andean region." [1]
- I. Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.
- A. States that reformed during this time period built upon the foundations of the classical ages; they found traditional sources of authority and legitimacy as reliable ground for the reconstitution of their civilizations. In such cases, these states had to combine these revived traditions with innovations in order to adapt to new circumstances. This process formed unique combinations of the old and new.
States that Combined Traditions and Innovations: Case Studies
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- CHINA
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- The Tang did not simply copy the accomplishments of the Han. Onto these borrowed traditions they grafted their own innovations. One such innovation resulted from the Tang's attempt to address a problem that crippled the Han during the last centuries of its rule: the unequal distribution of land across society. The Tang developed the equal field system to prevent peasant land from falling into the hands of the aristocracy, which happens so often during hard economic times. In this system, the government owned all the land but periodically redistributed it to families according to their need. This provided for a fairer distribution of land and a more equitable method of taxation (although the basis for calculating the tax was an issue of intense debate during the Tang.) [2]
- CHINA
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- Another innovation of the Tang Dynasty was its policy of establishing tributary states. Although earlier Chinese dynasties collected tribute, the practice became more complex and standardized under the Tang. The Chinese tributary system was based on their belief that Chinese civilization was superior to others, but barbarian and non-Chinese people could have access to Chinese ways providing they ceremonially recognized the supremacy of China and paid tribute to the emperor. [3] Thus China could "radiate" its superior civilization to barbarian people around it. In reality, the tributary system was a means for China to control conquered lands that often proved difficult to rule. Chinese dynasties had long tried to project their control over the Korean peninsula; indeed, its long costly war with Korea did much to discredit the Sui Dynasty, the Tang's predecessor. The Tang Dynasty gave its support the the Silla family of Korea to ensure their rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but it cost the Silla their independence. The price China demanded for helping the Silla was that they become a tributary state of the Tang emperor. Each year representatives from Korea traveled to the Chinese capital to purchase their rule with payments of tribute. They returned with Chinese customs, fads, Buddhist writings, clothing fashions, and literature. Through this tributary relationship much Chinese influence made its way into Korea.[4]
- In summary, the recovery of Chinese civilization in the post classical era was made possible by building on classical traditions, such as the Confucian civil service bureaucracy, and fusing them with new administrative practices such as the equal field system and the creation of tributary states.
- THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
- The Byzantine Empire thought of itself as the continuation of Roman civilization, so it was only natural that it would continue and build upon the foundations of classical Rome. One of Rome's most enduring legacies was its system of law. Indeed, even the barbarians who brought down the western half of the empire in the 5th century adopted the system of Roman law to regulate their civilizations. In the surviving eastern half of the Roman Empire the task to update laws and make them relevant to the new situation of Byzantine civilization
- As the classical age drew to a close, many of the previous Roman laws were rendered obsolete by changing conditions of the empire. Confusing and contradictory laws hindered the functioning of courts. Moreover, Roman civil law often conflicted with the eastern empire's adopted religion of Christianity.[5] In response to this situation, Justinian commissioned the formation of several bodies of law which are collectively referred to as the Code of Justinian.
- Like classical Roman Law, the Code of Justinian gave order and security to a collection of diverse peoples across the breadth of the empire. It punished dishonest tax collectors and encouraged honest trade. "Rape was punished by death and confiscation of property, and the proceeds were given to the injured woman." [6] What was entirely new about the Code was its enactment of Christianity morality into Roman civil law. It enforced the Church's views on divorce, adultery and homosexuality, and the Church's property was protected as a permanent holding. Death, torture and mutilation were common punishments. The Code of Justinian was an innovation but one built upon one of Rome's most successful traditions: law.
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- Unlike most of the era of Western Rome, the Byzantine Empire had an official religion, Orthodox Christianity. To adapt to this circumstance the Empire developed a new model of authority. Beginning with Constantine and extending to the end of the empire, they operated under an ideology called Caesaropapism, the vesting of political and religious authority under a single figure. Thus the emperor, the political head of state, simultaneously acted as the head of the organized Church. Again, Byzantine civilization innovated to meet the circumstances of the empire's realities.
- Another innovation of the Tang Dynasty was its policy of establishing tributary states. Although earlier Chinese dynasties collected tribute, the practice became more complex and standardized under the Tang. The Chinese tributary system was based on their belief that Chinese civilization was superior to others, but barbarian and non-Chinese people could have access to Chinese ways providing they ceremonially recognized the supremacy of China and paid tribute to the emperor. [3] Thus China could "radiate" its superior civilization to barbarian people around it. In reality, the tributary system was a means for China to control conquered lands that often proved difficult to rule. Chinese dynasties had long tried to project their control over the Korean peninsula; indeed, its long costly war with Korea did much to discredit the Sui Dynasty, the Tang's predecessor. The Tang Dynasty gave its support the the Silla family of Korea to ensure their rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but it cost the Silla their independence. The price China demanded for helping the Silla was that they become a tributary state of the Tang emperor. Each year representatives from Korea traveled to the Chinese capital to purchase their rule with payments of tribute. They returned with Chinese customs, fads, Buddhist writings, clothing fashions, and literature. Through this tributary relationship much Chinese influence made its way into Korea.[4]
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- B. Not all states in this era were reconstituted from the classical period. Some were new and built themselves from limited connections to the past.
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- THE ISLAMIC STATES
- A
- Soon after the death of Mohammed a dispute erupted over who should be the leader of this new religion. Since the idea of another prophet was inconceivable, a "deputy" or Caliph was chosen to lead the Muslim community. Disagreement over the qualifications of the Caliph led to the split of Muslims into Shia and Sunni factions. Nevertheless, the Caliph--a leader who presides over the political, religious and military affairs of the Dar al-Islam--became a central feature of Islamic civilization for the majority of Muslims. By bringing these separate components of civilization under a single leader, the Caliphate (the office of the Caliph) had a unifying effect on Islamic civilization.
- The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) pushed the boundaries of Islam far outside the Arabian peninsula. Umayyad armies conquered the Middle East, spread across North Africa, and into Iberia. Their conquests in Europe were limited to Spain by the Battle of Tours (732) in which the Franks routed the Muslim armies and turned them back across the Pyrenees Mountains. Under the Umayyads the Dar al-Islam was dominated by Arab military elites, and their preferential treatment of Arab Muslims brought them into conflict with the growing non-Arab population of Islamic civilization.[8]
- In 750 the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids and a new Caliphate was established. Under the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) a wider variety of cultural influences made their way into Islamic civilization, the most prominent of which was Persian. From the Abbasid capital of Baghdad, the Caliph ruled with absolute authority which he claimed to have received directly from God.[9] Rather than depend on a Arab military aristocracy like the Umayyads, the Abbasids used a salaried bureaucracy; bureaucrats could be promoted or dismissed at the whim of the caliph. They ended the racial policies of the Umayyads; Arabs were no longer favored in the administration of the caliphate and the Arab militias were replaced by a professional Abbasid army of paid soldiers. The nature of the caliph itself was dramatically transformed during the reign of the Abbasids. Rather than the "warrior" caliph of the Umayyads, the Abbasid Caliph lived in splendor and surrounded himself with wealth and elaborate ceremonies. He was an absolute ruler presiding over a centralized bureaucratic state and supported by military force.[10]
- THE ISLAMIC STATES
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- THE MONGOL KHANATES
- The Mongols built the largest land empire in the world, a remarkable feat considering they were pastoral nomads. Like the Muslims, Mongols had to overcome deep tribal divisions before they could be integrated into a large empire. In the culture of the Central Asian steppes, loyalties of kinship were so strong that they prevented any broad cooperation between people of different bloodlines. Like the
- A more important method of breaking tribal loyalties was through military organization. The most basic unit of the Mongol army was a unit of 10 men called an arban . To break the power of tribal identity, the men in each arban were purposely chosen from different bloodlines. They lived together, trained together, and fought together. In battle, members of an arban could never leave one of their own behind as missing or a captive. Seniority in the arban was determined by age, just as it was in tribes; indeed, the strong bonds of loyalty that formed among members of the arban rendered the military unit a surrogate for one's tribe, the identity of which became increasingly irrelevant.
- The
- An efficient communication network was not the only thing that benefited from the Mongols' mastery of their horses. Their equestrian skills were most effective on the battle field. The Mongol army, which could travel up to 100 miles in a day, had a level of mobility unparalleled until modern times. [15] A Mongol soldier spent much of his day on his horse, trained on his horse, used it for food, and could deliver arrows with deadly accuracy from the horse.
- Genghis Khan's armies first united the Mongol people, then began to incorporate other Asian tribes and Turks into his empire. He imposed law, called the Yassa, which codified most aspects of politics and the daily life of the empire. This law granted religious toleration and protected trade. The breadth of the Empire encompassed the Silk Roads and trade began to flow again. The Mongols sacked Baghdad and ended the Islamic Caliphate. They destroyed the Seljuk Turks and paved the way for the rise of the Ottomans. They ruled Russia as a tributary state. After taking the Song Dynasty, Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty and ruled China directly. The Mongol Empire had a profound impact of the development of world history.
- SWAHILI COAST CITY-STATES
- Not all the new political developments of this era produced centralized states. On the eastern coast of Africa, trade and Islam gave rise to powerful but independent city-states that thrived on Indian Ocean commerce. Something of this region's history can be seen from its name alone: Swahili is a language that formed through the blending of Bantu and Arabic. These African city-states were profoundly affected by Arab merchants who brought Islam to east Africa thus pulling them into the activity of Indian Ocean trade.
- Sustained
- The Swahili city-states were important points for connecting inland trade into the vast Indian Ocean network. Especially important was the city of Kilwa, which was the farthest down the coast a merchant ship could sail in a typical monsoon season. For this reason it attracted trade from the southernmost part of Africa. With this outlet for gold and ivory, the powerful Great Zimbabwe formed in southern Africa. Great Zimbabwe stands as a good example of an African state that developed along Bantu lines; it was out of the reach of Islam's influence, unlike Ghana, Mali and Songhai to the north.
- THE MONGOL KHANATES
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- FEUDALISM
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- When Japan was not able to maintain a centralized rule, they too fell into a similar situation with samurai warriors comprising the military caste. One important difference, however, was the absence of negotiated contracts between vassals and their superiors. It was honor and the fear of shame that held the bonds of obligation in the Japanese form of feudalism.
- FEUDALISM
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- C. There were some states in this time period that blended traditions with previous or neighboring civilizations to form synthesized states. For example, the Abbasid Caliphate was heavily influenced by Persian traditions. Islam advanced into the territory of the crumbling Sassanid Empire, and the Abbasids later selected Baghdad as its administrative center. Islamic civilization readily adopted Persian cultural and political influences. The practice of veiling women was not an original Muslim practice, but rather a Persian one with roots deep in Mesopotamian culture. Islamic women began to wear veils, a practice that showed the increasing patriarchy of Muslim society. [16] The Abbasids also borrowed the "cult of the king" notion from Persia. The caliph was transformed into an absolute ruler who could only be approached through an elaborate regimen of court rituals. Rather than being a leader who commanded an army on the field, the Abbasid Caliph's authority was reinforced by a large standing army. The source of the caliph's power, and the influence of Persia, can be seen in his new title, the "Shadow of God on Earth." [17]
- Another synthesized state in this era was Japan. The Japanese could not help but notice the successes and power of their Tang neighbors. Unlike Korea and Vietnam who acquired Chinese influences through invasions, the Japanese chose to emulate the Chinese. The government embarked on a course of transformation known as the Taika Reforms in which they copied many of China's successes. They attempted to centralize their state by means of a Confucian based bureaucracy. Chinese written language entered Japan, and the Japanese borrowed the Chinese equal field system of agriculture. Through Japan's connection to China, Buddhism poured into China, as it did in Korea and Vietnam.
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- D. In addition to the great River Valley Civilizations that emerged in Afro-eurasia, societies in Mesoamerican and the Andes region forged large complex civilizations. The most successful to arise during this period were the Mayan, the Aztecs, and the Incas. These civilizations, as with their counterparts on the other side of the world, were made possible by massive agricultural
- D. In addition to the great River Valley Civilizations that emerged in Afro-eurasia, societies in Mesoamerican and the Andes region forged large complex civilizations. The most successful to arise during this period were the Mayan, the Aztecs, and the Incas. These civilizations, as with their counterparts on the other side of the world, were made possible by massive agricultural
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- The Mayan
- Borrowing heavily from their parent civilization, the Olmecs, the Mayans reached their first peak of civilization between 250 to 900 C.E., then again between 1200 and 1450 C.E. One of the most impressive aspects about their ascendancy is how they overcame "extraordinary ecological challenges to create a very sophisticated and productive agriculture that was the key to their development." [19] They learned to trap rich river silt with terraces to replenish the fertility of the thin, poorly drained topsoil of southern Mexico. [20] The increased agriculture allowed the Mayan civilization to greatly expand, driving them to find increasingly creative means of collecting and storing water during the dry seasons and as insurance against unpredictable summer rains. [21] Politically, the Mayan were not a centralized empire, but rather were organized into over fifty small city-kingdoms often competing against each other. As in ancient Greece, cities sometimes formed opposing military alliances which shifted and reformed as circumstances changed. Tikal, the most powerful of these city-kingdoms, lasted eight centuries. About fifty years before the Spanish showed up in the Americas, the Mayan civilization fell apart, probably due to civil wars between the city-states.
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- The Aztecs
- After
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- The Inca
- In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Incas built the most centralized empire in the Americas during this time. Building on the base of the Chavin and Moche civilizations, they spread their civilization along the 2500 mile spine of the Andes Mountains on the western side of South America. Extensive terracing allowed them to practice agriculture in these high altitude and mountainous regions where they grew potatoes, maize, beans and peppers. There was a small merchant class, but trade was controlled by the government. Unlike the diverse societies of the Mayan and Aztec civilizations, the Incas practiced cultural imperialism, forcing their language and religion on conquered people. The Incas centralized their rule through a complex bureaucracy and an extensive network of roads and bridges. [23] Their ruler (originally called the "Inca") was believed to be a god. A large professional army was supported by peasants who owed compulsory labor to the state.
- II. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers.
- Tang China and the Abbasids
- As
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- Across the Mongol Empires
- The Mongol Empire was the largest land-based empire in history and brought together the breadth of most of Eurasia under a single rule. This facilitated substantial technological and cultural exchange through the medium of trade. Through the Mongols, Islamic mathematics and astronomy spread from the Dar la Islam into China where they found a receptive audience. Kublai Khan was very interested in mathematics, such as algebra, which the Muslims had developed in Baghdad. Accurate readings of the heavens were very important to Daoism and Shamanism, both of which depended on astrological readings to plan weddings, feasts and agriculture. The Chinese made advanced calculations in these areas which then made their way back to the Muslim world. Other areas of exchange were knowledge of geography and cartography. Most instrumental in this exchange was Rashid al-Din, the scholarly connection between the great Mongol courts in Iran and China. Scholars combined geographic information from China to the Middle East into the most accurate maps in the world at that time thus enabling the later Ming Dynasty to initiate its famous explorations (Zeng He and Ma Huan). In the world of food and agriculture, the Pax Mongolia allowed for the transfer of grapes and fruit trees to China. In return, luxury items of Chinese cuisine, such as pepper, cinnamon and tea, were introduced into the Muslim world. Perhaps the most important technological transfers during the Pax Mongolia were block printing and gunpowder. Through the Mongols, block printing, which had developed during China's Song Dynasty, was transferred to the Muslim world. Copying the Song Dynasty, the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia even issued paper money for a brief time. The best known technological exchange facilitated by the Mongols was gunpowder. Developed in China as early as the Han Dynasty, gunpowder would transform warfare and realign the centers of power in the world. With it Europeans would develop advanced firearms and dominate the Americas, the Byzantine Empire would fall to the Ottoman Turks, and Mongol rule over China, ironically, would come to an end. [24]
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- The Crusades
- The Crusades were a series of religious wars
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- Zheng He
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- The Chinese strategy in the Indian Ocean could not have been farther from that of the Portuguese a few decades later. In 1911 a stele, shown on the left, was discovered in Galle, south of India (present day Sri Lanka). It is inscribed not only in Chinese, but in Tamil and Persian, the primary languages of the inhabitants of that area. This stele was placed by Zheng He in 1409 as a gift to the people of Galle; its inscriptions list the extravagant gifts made by Zheng He in honor of the inhabitants' gods, in their own languages, to demonstrate China's good will. This is to be contrasted with Vasco da Gama, who cut apart the bodies of captured merchants and fishermen and sent their heads to the leader of Calcutta to show he meant business. [28]
- Unfortunately for Zheng He, a change of power in imperial China brought these voyages to an end. A new emperor, under the influence of powerful Confucians long suspicious of these voyages, withdrew funds for these diplomatic missions. The official records of Zheng's voyages were destroyed and the large treasure ships of the Chinese were banned. China began to focus instead on establishing internal stability over reaching out to the world.
References
- ↑ http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-world-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf
- ↑ http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/cup/tang_tax_debate.pdf
- ↑ The Ways of the World: A Global History., (2009), Robert W. Strayer, p. 249.
- ↑ Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Vol 1. (2012) Patricia Buckley Ebrey, p. 108.
- ↑ The Age of Faith. (1950) Will Durant, p. 111.
- ↑ Durant, p. 113.
- ↑ Traditions and Encounters. (2006, 3rd ed.) Jerry Bentley et al., pp. 323-4.
- ↑ Bentley et al., p. 355.
- ↑ The Arabs in History. (1966) Bernard Lewis, p. 83.
- ↑ Lewis, pp. 83-4.
- ↑ Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. (2004) Jack Weatherford, p. 51.
- ↑ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html
- ↑ Weatherford, p. 52.
- ↑ Weatherford, p. 72.
- ↑ http://www.mongolia-web.com/1203-mongol-military-tactics-and-organization#Mobility
- ↑ Bentley et al, p. 365.
- ↑ Strayer, p. 313-314.
- ↑ The scholar was Karl Wittfogel, cited in The History of Latin America: Collision of Cultures, (2007), Marshall C. Eakin, pp. 31-32.
- ↑ The History of Latin America: Collision of Cultures, (2007), Marshall C. Eakin, pp. 31-32.
- ↑ Traditions and Encounters, 5th ed., (2007), Jerry Bentley, p. 111.
- ↑ Panorama: A World History, (2015), Ross E. Dunn and Laura J Mitchell, p. 230.
- ↑ Traditions and Encounters, 5th ed., Bentley, p. 418.
- ↑ The History of Latin America: Collision of Cultures, (2007), Marshall C. Eakin, p. 37.
- ↑ "Pax Mongolica and Cultural Exchange", The Barbarian Empires of the Steppes, Kenneth W. Harl, The Great Courses.
- ↑ World Civilizations: The Global Experience., 4th ed., (2006) Peter N. Stearns, p. 153.
- ↑ China: A New History. (2006) John K. Fairbank and Merle Goldman, p.138.
- ↑ The Discoverers. Boorstin, p.191.
- ↑ The Discoverers, Boorstin, pp.193-194.
Source: http://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_3.2_Continuity_and_Innovation_of_State_Forms_and_Their_Interactions
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